In the highest antiquity, (the people) did not know that there were (their rulers). In the next age they loved them and praised them. In the next they feared them; in the next they despised them. Thus it was that when faith (in the Tao) was deficient (in the rulers) a want of faith in them ensued (in the people).

Who is considered the founder of Taoism?

Passage 3 (Questions 11 - 15)While the central otherworldly concerns of the Taoist religion have led some commentators to assert that Taoism is a "religion without religious texts," nothing could be further from the truth. The key texts of Taoism may lack the same coherence and historicity of the Talmud or the Qur’an, but there are nonetheless various works that have profound influence, and no small authority among nearly all Taoist sects.It goes without saying that the Tao Te Ching is the central work of all Taoist religion. Despite two and a half millennia of debate over its origins, authorship, and date of origin, it remains the foundational work of Taoist philosophy and a central component of Taoist ritual. So important is this work that even commentaries on it (themselves many hundreds of years old) have become important religious texts themselves.If the Tao Te Ching lays down the foundational ideas of Tao and Te themselves, the practical application of these ideas in life is more fully explored in the Zhuangzi and the I Ching. The Zhuangzi, much like the Tao Te Ching, has an ancient origin (ca. 400 AD) shrouded in no small amount of legend. Supposedly written partly by Zhuangzi himself and later expanded by his disciples, the work eschews the abstract poetry of the Tao Te Ching. Instead, it uses more down-to-earth parables and short dialogues to help readers bring their lives into alignment with the concept of tzu-jan, or naturalness, in their daily lives. It also encourages following the Tao of the elements.Unlike the Zhuangzi, or any other Taoist text, the I Ching predates the Tao Te Ching by centuries. The system of fortune-telling described in the I Ching dates to somewhere in the 12th century BCE. The I Ching is meant to guide practitioners in choosing the right action based on some understanding of the current situation and the future. Early in Taoist development, Taoist scholars adopted the I Ching as their own and advocated it as a central text through which one could meditate on the right way. The cosmological notions at the foundation of the I Ching became so intermingled with Taoist cosmology and Yinyangism over time that by the 16th century there was no meaningful distinction for most practitioners.Finally, in addition to these three core texts, scholars in the fourth and fifth centuries AD attempted to collate all major texts, commentaries, manuscripts, and apologies into a single collection. This work came to be known as the Tao Tsang, typically translated as “Treasury of Tao” or “Taoist Canon.” The Tao Tsang was collected and re-collected many times over the centuries, but scholars generally recognize four major Tao Tsangs. The first, compiled circa 400 AD, consisted of a bit more than a thousand scrolls and developed the tripartite division that would remain through future efforts. The second and third Tao Tsangs expanded the collection to nearly 5000 separate scrolls, and the fourth and final Tao Tsang of 1444 in the Ming Dynasty settled the compilation at just under 5300 works.The Tao Tsang (all four major compilations) divides its constituent works into three broad categories, typically termed “grottoes,” each of which is split into a dozen chapters. The three grottoes are concerned with meditation, rituals, and exorcisms, with meditation always considered the highest and most pure set of writings. When someone is working to be initiated as a Taoist master, the grotto of meditation includes the writings used in the final phase of training. Question 13The author asserts that the major difference between the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi is that: A.the Zhuangzi attempts to show how to apply Taoist concepts in daily life by using short, abstract poems.B.the Tao Te Ching developed after the Zhuangzi as a distillation of the core concepts of Tao and Te expressed in the Zhuangzi.C.the Zhuangzi attempts to be more practical, both in its subject-matter and in its style.D.the Tao Te Ching requires its readers to have fully contemplated the works of the meditation grotto for full appreciation.

Passage 3 (Questions 11 - 15)While the central otherworldly concerns of the Taoist religion have led some commentators to assert that Taoism is a "religion without religious texts," nothing could be further from the truth. The key texts of Taoism may lack the same coherence and historicity of the Talmud or the Qur’an, but there are nonetheless various works that have profound influence, and no small authority among nearly all Taoist sects.It goes without saying that the Tao Te Ching is the central work of all Taoist religion. Despite two and a half millennia of debate over its origins, authorship, and date of origin, it remains the foundational work of Taoist philosophy and a central component of Taoist ritual. So important is this work that even commentaries on it (themselves many hundreds of years old) have become important religious texts themselves.If the Tao Te Ching lays down the foundational ideas of Tao and Te themselves, the practical application of these ideas in life is more fully explored in the Zhuangzi and the I Ching. The Zhuangzi, much like the Tao Te Ching, has an ancient origin (ca. 400 AD) shrouded in no small amount of legend. Supposedly written partly by Zhuangzi himself and later expanded by his disciples, the work eschews the abstract poetry of the Tao Te Ching. Instead, it uses more down-to-earth parables and short dialogues to help readers bring their lives into alignment with the concept of tzu-jan, or naturalness, in their daily lives. It also encourages following the Tao of the elements.Unlike the Zhuangzi, or any other Taoist text, the I Ching predates the Tao Te Ching by centuries. The system of fortune-telling described in the I Ching dates to somewhere in the 12th century BCE. The I Ching is meant to guide practitioners in choosing the right action based on some understanding of the current situation and the future. Early in Taoist development, Taoist scholars adopted the I Ching as their own and advocated it as a central text through which one could meditate on the right way. The cosmological notions at the foundation of the I Ching became so intermingled with Taoist cosmology and Yinyangism over time that by the 16th century there was no meaningful distinction for most practitioners.Finally, in addition to these three core texts, scholars in the fourth and fifth centuries AD attempted to collate all major texts, commentaries, manuscripts, and apologies into a single collection. This work came to be known as the Tao Tsang, typically translated as “Treasury of Tao” or “Taoist Canon.” The Tao Tsang was collected and re-collected many times over the centuries, but scholars generally recognize four major Tao Tsangs. The first, compiled circa 400 AD, consisted of a bit more than a thousand scrolls and developed the tripartite division that would remain through future efforts. The second and third Tao Tsangs expanded the collection to nearly 5000 separate scrolls, and the fourth and final Tao Tsang of 1444 in the Ming Dynasty settled the compilation at just under 5300 works.The Tao Tsang (all four major compilations) divides its constituent works into three broad categories, typically termed “grottoes,” each of which is split into a dozen chapters. The three grottoes are concerned with meditation, rituals, and exorcisms, with meditation always considered the highest and most pure set of writings. When someone is working to be initiated as a Taoist master, the grotto of meditation includes the writings used in the final phase of training. Question 14Which of the following would most weaken one of the author’s central arguments? A.In several major schools of Taoist teaching, the grotto of meditation is taught as the middle grotto in the progression towards becoming a master, with the final grotto being the grotto of rituals.B.The parables presented by the Zhuangzi are held as infallible representations of the Tao in action in daily life, and questioning the core truth of these stories is typically punished by banishment from the community.C.During Taoist ceremonies, the priest’s copy of the Tao Te Ching is treated reverently, placed on a special dais between readings, with only the priest being permitted to touch the book.D.Despite the existence of many works that discuss Taoist themes, the texts themselves are not seen as sacred by most Taoists and the ideas expressed in these works are taken as general guidance that can be disregarded by any local priest or follower of the religion.

Passage 3 (Questions 11 - 15)While the central otherworldly concerns of the Taoist religion have led some commentators to assert that Taoism is a "religion without religious texts," nothing could be further from the truth. The key texts of Taoism may lack the same coherence and historicity of the Talmud or the Qur’an, but there are nonetheless various works that have profound influence, and no small authority among nearly all Taoist sects.It goes without saying that the Tao Te Ching is the central work of all Taoist religion. Despite two and a half millennia of debate over its origins, authorship, and date of origin, it remains the foundational work of Taoist philosophy and a central component of Taoist ritual. So important is this work that even commentaries on it (themselves many hundreds of years old) have become important religious texts themselves.If the Tao Te Ching lays down the foundational ideas of Tao and Te themselves, the practical application of these ideas in life is more fully explored in the Zhuangzi and the I Ching. The Zhuangzi, much like the Tao Te Ching, has an ancient origin (ca. 400 AD) shrouded in no small amount of legend. Supposedly written partly by Zhuangzi himself and later expanded by his disciples, the work eschews the abstract poetry of the Tao Te Ching. Instead, it uses more down-to-earth parables and short dialogues to help readers bring their lives into alignment with the concept of tzu-jan, or naturalness, in their daily lives. It also encourages following the Tao of the elements.Unlike the Zhuangzi, or any other Taoist text, the I Ching predates the Tao Te Ching by centuries. The system of fortune-telling described in the I Ching dates to somewhere in the 12th century BCE. The I Ching is meant to guide practitioners in choosing the right action based on some understanding of the current situation and the future. Early in Taoist development, Taoist scholars adopted the I Ching as their own and advocated it as a central text through which one could meditate on the right way. The cosmological notions at the foundation of the I Ching became so intermingled with Taoist cosmology and Yinyangism over time that by the 16th century there was no meaningful distinction for most practitioners.Finally, in addition to these three core texts, scholars in the fourth and fifth centuries AD attempted to collate all major texts, commentaries, manuscripts, and apologies into a single collection. This work came to be known as the Tao Tsang, typically translated as “Treasury of Tao” or “Taoist Canon.” The Tao Tsang was collected and re-collected many times over the centuries, but scholars generally recognize four major Tao Tsangs. The first, compiled circa 400 AD, consisted of a bit more than a thousand scrolls and developed the tripartite division that would remain through future efforts. The second and third Tao Tsangs expanded the collection to nearly 5000 separate scrolls, and the fourth and final Tao Tsang of 1444 in the Ming Dynasty settled the compilation at just under 5300 works.The Tao Tsang (all four major compilations) divides its constituent works into three broad categories, typically termed “grottoes,” each of which is split into a dozen chapters. The three grottoes are concerned with meditation, rituals, and exorcisms, with meditation always considered the highest and most pure set of writings. When someone is working to be initiated as a Taoist master, the grotto of meditation includes the writings used in the final phase of training. Question 12Suppose archaeologists discover a previously unknown text that discusses Taoist themes and advocates for the practice of Taoist rituals. The author would be least likely to believe which of the following about this text? A.Such a text would have been incorporated into the Tao Tsang if the compilers had known of it.B.The text may have been written at about the same time as the I Ching.C.Any discussion of cosmology included in the new text may have significant overlap with important themes of the I Ching and Yinyangism.D.It may have been considered an important religious text in its own right if it were an influential commentary on the Tao Te Ching.

Passage 3 (Questions 11 - 15)While the central otherworldly concerns of the Taoist religion have led some commentators to assert that Taoism is a "religion without religious texts," nothing could be further from the truth. The key texts of Taoism may lack the same coherence and historicity of the Talmud or the Qur’an, but there are nonetheless various works that have profound influence, and no small authority among nearly all Taoist sects.It goes without saying that the Tao Te Ching is the central work of all Taoist religion. Despite two and a half millennia of debate over its origins, authorship, and date of origin, it remains the foundational work of Taoist philosophy and a central component of Taoist ritual. So important is this work that even commentaries on it (themselves many hundreds of years old) have become important religious texts themselves.If the Tao Te Ching lays down the foundational ideas of Tao and Te themselves, the practical application of these ideas in life is more fully explored in the Zhuangzi and the I Ching. The Zhuangzi, much like the Tao Te Ching, has an ancient origin (ca. 400 AD) shrouded in no small amount of legend. Supposedly written partly by Zhuangzi himself and later expanded by his disciples, the work eschews the abstract poetry of the Tao Te Ching. Instead, it uses more down-to-earth parables and short dialogues to help readers bring their lives into alignment with the concept of tzu-jan, or naturalness, in their daily lives. It also encourages following the Tao of the elements.Unlike the Zhuangzi, or any other Taoist text, the I Ching predates the Tao Te Ching by centuries. The system of fortune-telling described in the I Ching dates to somewhere in the 12th century BCE. The I Ching is meant to guide practitioners in choosing the right action based on some understanding of the current situation and the future. Early in Taoist development, Taoist scholars adopted the I Ching as their own and advocated it as a central text through which one could meditate on the right way. The cosmological notions at the foundation of the I Ching became so intermingled with Taoist cosmology and Yinyangism over time that by the 16th century there was no meaningful distinction for most practitioners.Finally, in addition to these three core texts, scholars in the fourth and fifth centuries AD attempted to collate all major texts, commentaries, manuscripts, and apologies into a single collection. This work came to be known as the Tao Tsang, typically translated as “Treasury of Tao” or “Taoist Canon.” The Tao Tsang was collected and re-collected many times over the centuries, but scholars generally recognize four major Tao Tsangs. The first, compiled circa 400 AD, consisted of a bit more than a thousand scrolls and developed the tripartite division that would remain through future efforts. The second and third Tao Tsangs expanded the collection to nearly 5000 separate scrolls, and the fourth and final Tao Tsang of 1444 in the Ming Dynasty settled the compilation at just under 5300 works.The Tao Tsang (all four major compilations) divides its constituent works into three broad categories, typically termed “grottoes,” each of which is split into a dozen chapters. The three grottoes are concerned with meditation, rituals, and exorcisms, with meditation always considered the highest and most pure set of writings. When someone is working to be initiated as a Taoist master, the grotto of meditation includes the writings used in the final phase of training. Question 11Which of the following best characterizes the author’s attitude towards the position the Tao Te Ching holds among Taoist texts? A.Assurance of its foremost positionB.Tentative belief of its status as the least important textC.Studied agnosticism about its relative positionD.Ignorance about how it relates to other texts