As defined by Vygotsky, psychological tools: a. include speech, writing, maps and diagrams. b. are passed on through culture. c. must result from formal instruction. d. both aid and change mental functioning. e. are introduced through social interactions.

To answer the question step by step, let's analyze each option in relation to Vygotsky's theory of psychological tools:

a. Include speech, writing, maps and diagrams.

• Vygotsky indeed considered speech, writing, maps, and diagrams as examples of psychological tools. These tools help in the development of higher mental functions.

b. Are passed on through culture.

• According to Vygotsky, psychological tools are transmitted through cultural means. They are not innate but are learned through interaction within a cultural context.

c. Must result from formal instruction.

• While formal instruction can play a role in the transmission of psychological tools, Vygotsky did not state that it is the only way they are acquired. Informal social interactions also contribute significantly.

d. Both aid and change mental functioning.

• Vygotsky believed that psychological tools not only assist in cognitive tasks but also transform the way individuals think and process information.

e. Are introduced through social interactions.

• Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions in the introduction and development of psychological tools. Learning occurs through collaborative activities and communication with others.

Based on the analysis, the correct options are:

a. Include speech, writing, maps and diagrams. b. Are passed on through culture. d. Both aid and change mental functioning. e. Are introduced through social interactions.

Therefore, the most accurate answer is:

d. Both aid and change mental functioning.