1. Related to fatty acid de novo synthesisa. What is the method of obtaining acetyl Co A to the cytosol in order to synthesize fattyacids? Explain your answer with chemical reactions.b. What is the method of obtaining other substrate which is needed for f.a synthesis?c. What are the major repetitive steps in the process?d. Briefly discuss the f.a synthesis using palmitate as the examplee. What is the rate limiting step of f.a synthesis; state how is it regulated.2. Related to f.a breakdown/catabolisma. Describe how does a f.a with more than 12 carbons but less than 22 carbons in the f.achain enters to the site of breakdown.b. What are the major repetitive steps of beta oxidation?c. Using palmitate as the example illustrate the beta oxidation at its 3rd carbon moleculed. What are the end products of oxidation of palmitate? State how many ATPs areproduced.3. Compare and contrast f.a synthesis and breakdown4. Related to ketone bodiesa. What are the ketone bodies produced by f.a oxidation?b. State how the above molecules are generated?c. Briefly explain how peripheral tissues use ketone bodies.d. Liver produces ketone bodies but can’t use them; additionally, brain can use them butRBCs cannot. Explain these statements.e. Explain how pregnancy toxaemia and ketoacidosis occur using a flow chart

Fatty Acid Synthesis: a. Acetyl CoA is transported into the cytosol from the mitochondria in the form of citrate. This is facilitated by the citrate shuttle. In the cytosol, citrate is converted back into acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate by ATP-citrate lyase. b. The other substrate needed for fatty acid synthesis is NADPH, which is obtained from the pentose phosphate pathway. c. The major repetitive steps in fatty acid synthesis are condensation, reduction, dehydration, and another reduction. d. Palmitate synthesis involves the condensation of acetyl CoA and malonyl CoA, followed by a series of reduction and dehydration reactions. This process is repeated seven times to produce palmitate. e. The rate-limiting step of fatty acid synthesis is the carboxylation of acetyl CoA to malonyl CoA, catalyzed by acetyl CoA carboxylase. This enzyme is regulated by allosteric activation by citrate and inhibition by palmitoyl CoA.

Fatty Acid Breakdown: a. Fatty acids with more than 12 but less than 22 carbons enter the mitochondria for breakdown via the carnitine shuttle. b. The major repetitive steps of beta oxidation are dehydrogenation, hydration, another dehydrogenation, and thiolysis. c. In the case of palmitate, beta oxidation at its 3rd carbon molecule involves the same steps as mentioned above. d. The end products of palmitate oxidation are 8 acetyl CoA, 7 FADH2, and 7 NADH. This yields a total of 131 ATP.

Fatty acid synthesis occurs in the cytosol and involves the building up of acetyl CoA units, while fatty acid breakdown occurs in the mitochondria and involves the breaking down of fatty acids into acetyl CoA units.

Ketone Bodies: a. The ketone bodies produced by fatty acid oxidation are acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone. b. These molecules are generated in the liver from acetyl CoA. c. Peripheral tissues use ketone bodies by converting them back into acetyl CoA, which can then enter the citric acid cycle. d. The liver cannot use ketone bodies because it lacks the enzyme thiophorase, which is necessary for their conversion into acetyl CoA. Red blood cells cannot use them because they lack mitochondria, where the conversion process occurs. e. Pregnancy toxemia and ketoacidosis occur when there is excessive breakdown of fatty acids, leading to an overproduction of ketone bodies. This can result in metabolic acidosis and other health complications.